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Directory service, created past Microsoft for Windows domain networks

Active Directory (AD) is a directory service developed by Microsoft for Windows domain networks. It is included in virtually Windows Server operating systems as a set of processes and services.[1] [ii] Initially, Agile Directory was used merely for centralized domain management. Nonetheless, Agile Directory eventually became an umbrella championship for a wide range of directory-based identity-related services.[3]

A server running the Active Directory Domain Service (AD DS) role is called a domain controller. It authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a Windows domain type network, assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers, and installing or updating software. For example, when a user logs into a computer that is part of a Windows domain, Active Directory checks the submitted username and password and determines whether the user is a organisation administrator or normal user.[4] Also, it allows management and storage of data, provides authentication and authorization mechanisms, and establishes a framework to deploy other related services: Document Services, Active Directory Federation Services, Lightweight Directory Services, and Rights Management Services.[five]

Active Directory uses Lightweight Directory Admission Protocol (LDAP) versions 2 and 3, Microsoft's version of Kerberos,[6] and DNS.[7]

History [edit]

Similar many information-technology efforts, Active Directory originated out of a democratization of design using Request for Comments (RFCs). The Internet Technology Task Strength (IETF), which oversees the RFC process, has accepted numerous RFCs initiated past widespread participants. For example, LDAP underpins Active Directory. Also Ten.500 directories and the Organizational Unit preceded the Active Directory concept that makes use of those methods. The LDAP concept began to emerge even before the founding of Microsoft in April 1975, with RFCs as early equally 1971. RFCs contributing to LDAP include RFC 1823 (on the LDAP API, August 1995),[8] RFC 2307, RFC 3062, and RFC 4533.[9] [x] [11]

Microsoft previewed Active Directory in 1999, released it get-go with Windows 2000 Server edition, and revised it to extend functionality and ameliorate assistants in Windows Server 2003. Agile Directory support was also added to Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 via patch, with some features being unsupported.[12] [13] Boosted improvements came with subsequent versions of Windows Server. In Windows Server 2008, additional services were added to Agile Directory, such as Active Directory Federation Services.[14] The part of the directory in accuse of direction of domains, which was previously a core part of the operating system,[14] was renamed Active Directory Domain Services (ADDS) and became a server role similar others.[3] "Agile Directory" became the umbrella title of a broader range of directory-based services.[fifteen] Co-ordinate to Byron Hynes, everything related to identity was brought under Agile Directory's banner.[3]

Active Directory Services [edit]

Active Directory Services consist of multiple directory services. The best known is Active Directory Domain Services, commonly abbreviated as Ad DS or simply AD.

Domain Services [edit]

Active Directory Domain Services (Advert DS) is the foundation rock of every Windows domain network. It stores data virtually members of the domain, including devices and users, verifies their credentials and defines their admission rights. The server running this service is called a domain controller. A domain controller is contacted when a user logs into a device, accesses another device across the network, or runs a line-of-business Metro-style app sideloaded into a device.

Other Active Directory services (excluding LDS, as described below) likewise equally nigh of Microsoft server technologies rely on or use Domain Services; examples include Group Policy, Encrypting File System, BitLocker, Domain Proper noun Services, Remote Desktop Services, Exchange Server and SharePoint Server.

The self-managed Advertisement DS must not exist confused with managed Azure AD DS, which is a cloud product.[16]

Lightweight Directory Services [edit]

Agile Directory Lightweight Directory Services (Ad LDS), formerly known every bit Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM),[17] is an implementation of LDAP protocol for Advertisement DS.[18] AD LDS runs as a service on Windows Server. AD LDS shares the code base with AD DS and provides the same functionality, including an identical API, but does non crave the cosmos of domains or domain controllers. It provides a Information Store for storage of directory information and a Directory Service with an LDAP Directory Service Interface. Unlike Advertising DS, withal, multiple Advertisement LDS instances can run on the aforementioned server.

Certificate Services [edit]

Agile Directory Certificate Services (AD CS) establishes an on-premises public key infrastructure. It tin create, validate and revoke public key certificates for internal uses of an organization. These certificates can exist used to encrypt files (when used with Encrypting File System), emails (per S/MIME standard), and network traffic (when used past virtual individual networks, Transport Layer Security protocol or IPSec protocol).

Advert CS predates Windows Server 2008, but its name was simply Certificate Services.[19]

Advertizement CS requires an AD DS infrastructure.[20]

Federation Services [edit]

Active Directory Federation Services (AD FS) is a unmarried sign-on service. With an AD FS infrastructure in identify, users may use several web-based services (e.g. internet forum, blog, online shopping, webmail) or network resources using only one set of credentials stored at a fundamental location, as opposed to having to be granted a dedicated set up of credentials for each service. AD FS uses many popular open standards to pass token credentials such as SAML, OAuth or OpenID Connect.[21] AD FS supports encryption and signing of SAML assertions.[22] AD FS'south purpose is an extension of that of AD DS: The latter enables users to authenticate with and apply the devices that are part of the same network, using 1 set of credentials. The sometime enables them to use the same set of credentials in a different network.

Equally the name suggests, Ad FS works based on the concept of federated identity.

Advertisement FS requires an Advertisement DS infrastructure, although its federation partner may not.[23]

Rights Direction Services [edit]

Active Directory Rights Management Services (AD RMS, known as Rights Management Services or RMS earlier Windows Server 2008) is a server software for information rights management shipped with Windows Server. Information technology uses encryption and a grade of selective functionality denial for limiting access to documents such every bit corporate e-mails, Microsoft Word documents, and web pages, and the operations authorized users can perform on them. These operations tin include viewing, editing, copying, saving equally or printing for example. It administrators can create pre-gear up templates for the convenience of the end user if required. Nevertheless, end users can still ascertain who can access the content in question and set what they can do. [24]

Logical structure [edit]

As a directory service, an Active Directory example consists of a database and corresponding executable lawmaking responsible for servicing requests and maintaining the database. The executable part, known equally Directory System Agent, is a collection of Windows services and processes that run on Windows 2000 and later.[1] Objects in Agile Directory databases can be accessed via LDAP, ADSI (a component object model interface), messaging API and Security Accounts Director services.[two]

Objects [edit]

A simplified example of a publishing visitor's internal network. The visitor has 4 groups with varying permissions to the three shared folders on the network.

Active Directory structures are arrangements of data about objects. The objects fall into two broad categories: resources (east.g., printers) and security principals (user or computer accounts and groups). Security principals are assigned unique security identifiers (SIDs).

Each object represents a single entity—whether a user, a figurer, a printer, or a group—and its attributes. Certain objects can incorporate other objects. An object is uniquely identified by its name and has a set of attributes—the characteristics and information that the object represents— divers by a schema, which also determines the kinds of objects that can exist stored in Active Directory.

The schema object lets administrators extend or change the schema when necessary. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory objects, deactivating or changing these objects can fundamentally change or disrupt a deployment. Schema changes automatically propagate throughout the system. Once created, an object tin only exist deactivated—not deleted. Changing the schema ordinarily requires planning.[25]

Forests, trees, and domains [edit]

The Active Directory framework that holds the objects can be viewed at a number of levels. The forest, tree, and domain are the logical divisions in an Active Directory network.

Inside a deployment, objects are grouped into domains. The objects for a single domain are stored in a single database (which can exist replicated). Domains are identified by their DNS name structure, the namespace.

A domain is divers as a logical group of network objects (computers, users, devices) that share the aforementioned Active Directory database.

A tree is a drove of one or more domains and domain copse in a contiguous namespace, and is linked in a transitive trust hierarchy.

At the top of the structure is the forest. A forest is a collection of trees that share a common global catalog, directory schema, logical construction, and directory configuration. The wood represents the security boundary within which users, computers, groups, and other objects are accessible.

Organizational units [edit]

The objects held within a domain tin can be grouped into organizational units (OUs).[26] OUs tin can provide bureaucracy to a domain, ease its assistants, and can resemble the organization's structure in managerial or geographical terms. OUs can contain other OUs—domains are containers in this sense. Microsoft recommends using OUs rather than domains for structure and to simplify the implementation of policies and assistants. The OU is the recommended level at which to apply group policies, which are Active Directory objects formally named group policy objects (GPOs), although policies can too be practical to domains or sites (encounter below). The OU is the level at which authoritative powers are commonly delegated, but delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes likewise.

Organizational units practise not each have a separate namespace. As a consequence, for compatibility with Legacy NetBios implementations, user accounts with an identical sAMAccountName are not allowed within the aforementioned domain fifty-fifty if the accounts objects are in separate OUs. This is because sAMAccountName, a user object attribute, must be unique inside the domain.[27] Still, two users in unlike OUs tin have the same common proper name (CN), the proper name under which they are stored in the directory itself such as "fred.staff-ou.domain" and "fred.student-ou.domain", where "staff-ou" and "educatee-ou" are the OUs.

In full general the reason for this lack of allowance for duplicate names through hierarchical directory placement is that Microsoft primarily relies on the principles of NetBIOS, which is a flat-namespace method of network object management that, for Microsoft software, goes all the way back to Windows NT 3.1 and MS-DOS LAN Manager. Assuasive for duplication of object names in the directory, or completely removing the use of NetBIOS names, would prevent astern compatibility with legacy software and equipment. Notwithstanding, disallowing duplicate object names in this fashion is a violation of the LDAP RFCs on which Active Directory is supposedly based.

Equally the number of users in a domain increases, conventions such every bit "first initial, middle initial, terminal proper name" (Western order) or the reverse (Eastern social club) fail for mutual family names similar Li (李), Smith or Garcia. Workarounds include adding a digit to the cease of the username. Alternatives include creating a separate ID system of unique employee/student ID numbers to utilize every bit account names in place of bodily users' names, and allowing users to nominate their preferred word sequence inside an acceptable utilize policy.

Considering indistinguishable usernames cannot exist inside a domain, account proper name generation poses a significant challenge for large organizations that cannot be hands subdivided into split up domains, such every bit students in a public schoolhouse arrangement or university who must be able to apply whatsoever computer beyond the network.

Shadow groups [edit]

In Agile Directory, organizational units (OUs) cannot be assigned as owners or trustees. Only groups are selectable, and members of OUs cannot be collectively assigned rights to directory objects.

In Microsoft'southward Agile Directory, OUs do not confer access permissions, and objects placed within OUs are not automatically assigned access privileges based on their containing OU. This is a pattern limitation specific to Active Directory. Other competing directories such equally Novell NDS are able to assign admission privileges through object placement within an OU.

Active Directory requires a separate step for an administrator to assign an object in an OU every bit a fellow member of a group too within that OU. Relying on OU location alone to determine access permissions is unreliable, because the object may not take been assigned to the group object for that OU.

A common workaround for an Agile Directory administrator is to write a custom PowerShell or Visual Basic script to automatically create and maintain a user group for each OU in their directory. The scripts are run periodically to update the group to friction match the OU's account membership, merely are unable to instantly update the security groups anytime the directory changes, as occurs in competing directories where security is directly implemented into the directory itself. Such groups are known as shadow groups. One time created, these shadow groups are selectable in place of the OU in the authoritative tools.

Microsoft refers to shadow groups in the Server 2008 Reference documentation, only does not explicate how to create them. At that place are no congenital-in server methods or console snap-ins for managing shadow groups.[28]

The sectionalization of an arrangement'south information infrastructure into a hierarchy of one or more domains and top-level OUs is a key decision. Common models are past concern unit of measurement, by geographical location, past It Service, or past object blazon and hybrids of these. OUs should be structured primarily to facilitate administrative delegation, and secondarily, to facilitate group policy application. Although OUs form an authoritative boundary, the only truthful security boundary is the forest itself and an administrator of any domain in the woods must be trusted across all domains in the wood.[29]

Partitions [edit]

The Active Directory database is organized in partitions, each property specific object types and following a specific replication blueprint. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as 'naming contexts'.[30] The 'Schema' sectionalization contains the definition of object classes and attributes within the Forest. The 'Configuration' partition contains information on the physical structure and configuration of the wood (such as the site topology). Both replicate to all domains in the Forest. The 'Domain' partitioning holds all objects created in that domain and replicates only within its domain.

Concrete structure [edit]

Sites are physical (rather than logical) groupings divers past one or more IP subnets.[31] Advert also holds the definitions of connections, distinguishing low-speed (due east.thousand., WAN, VPN) from loftier-speed (east.g., LAN) links. Site definitions are independent of the domain and OU construction and are common across the wood. Sites are used to control network traffic generated by replication and too to refer clients to the nearest domain controllers (DCs). Microsoft Substitution Server 2007 uses the site topology for mail routing. Policies can also be divers at the site level.

Physically, the Active Directory data is held on one or more peer domain controllers, replacing the NT PDC/BDC model. Each DC has a copy of the Active Directory. Servers joined to Active Directory that are non domain controllers are called Member Servers.[32] A subset of objects in the domain sectionalisation replicate to domain controllers that are configured equally global catalogs. Global catalog (GC) servers provide a global listing of all objects in the Forest.[33] [34] Global Catalog servers replicate to themselves all objects from all domains and, hence, provide a global list of objects in the forest. However, to minimize replication traffic and keep the GC's database minor, only selected attributes of each object are replicated. This is chosen the partial attribute set up (PAS). The PAS can be modified past modifying the schema and mark attributes for replication to the GC.[35] Earlier versions of Windows used NetBIOS to communicate. Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and requires TCP/IP—DNS. To be fully functional, the DNS server must support SRV resource records, also known equally service records.

Replication [edit]

Active Directory synchronizes changes using multi-main replication.[36] Replication by default is 'pull' rather than 'button', pregnant that replicas pull changes from the server where the change was effected.[37] The Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC) creates a replication topology of site links using the defined sites to manage traffic. Intra-site replication is frequent and automatic as a result of alter notification, which triggers peers to begin a pull replication bicycle. Inter-site replication intervals are typically less frequent and do not use alter notification past default, although this is configurable and can be made identical to intra-site replication.

Each link tin have a 'cost' (e.one thousand., DS3, T1, ISDN etc.) and the KCC alters the site link topology appropriately. Replication may occur transitively through several site links on same-protocol site link bridges, if the cost is low, although KCC automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. Site-to-site replication can exist configured to occur between a bridgehead server in each site, which and then replicates the changes to other DCs within the site. Replication for Agile Directory zones is automatically configured when DNS is activated in the domain based by site.

Replication of Active Directory uses Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) over IP (RPC/IP). Between Sites SMTP tin can be used for replication, merely only for changes in the Schema, Configuration, or Fractional Attribute Set up (Global Catalog) GCs. SMTP cannot exist used for replicating the default Domain partition.[38]

Implementation [edit]

In general, a network utilizing Active Directory has more than than one licensed Windows server computer. Fill-in and restore of Agile Directory is possible for a network with a unmarried domain controller,[39] simply Microsoft recommends more than than one domain controller to provide automatic failover protection of the directory.[40] Domain controllers are also ideally unmarried-purpose for directory operations but, and should non run any other software or role.[41]

Certain Microsoft products such equally SQL Server[42] [43] and Commutation[44] can interfere with the functioning of a domain controller, necessitating isolation of these products on boosted Windows servers. Combining them can brand configuration or troubleshooting of either the domain controller or the other installed software more hard.[45] A business concern intending to implement Active Directory is therefore recommended to purchase a number of Windows server licenses, to provide for at least two separate domain controllers, and optionally, additional domain controllers for functioning or back-up, a separate file server, a dissever Exchange server, a divide SQL Server,[46] and and then along to back up the various server roles.

Physical hardware costs for the many carve up servers can be reduced through the apply of virtualization, although for proper failover protection, Microsoft recommends not running multiple virtualized domain controllers on the same physical hardware.[47]

Database [edit]

The Active-Directory database, the directory shop, in Windows 2000 Server uses the JET Blue-based Extensible Storage Engine (ESE98) and is limited to 16 terabytes and ii billion objects (but merely i billion security principals) in each domain controller'south database. Microsoft has created NTDS databases with more than than 2 billion objects.[48] (NT4'due south Security Business relationship Director could support no more than 40,000 objects). Called NTDS.DIT, information technology has two main tables: the data table and the link table. Windows Server 2003 added a third main tabular array for security descriptor single instancing.[48]

Programs may access the features of Active Directory[49] via the COM interfaces provided by Agile Directory Service Interfaces.[l]

Trusting [edit]

To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, Active Directory uses trusts.[51]

Trusts inside a woods are automatically created when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, and implicit, transitive trust is automated for all domains within a forest.

Terminology [edit]

One-way trust
One domain allows access to users on some other domain, simply the other domain does not allow access to users on the offset domain.
Two-style trust
2 domains allow admission to users on both domains.
Trusted domain
The domain that is trusted; whose users have access to the trusting domain.
Transitive trust
A trust that can extend beyond two domains to other trusted domains in the forest.
Intransitive trust
A one mode trust that does not extend across two domains.
Explicit trust
A trust that an admin creates. Information technology is not transitive and is 1 way merely.
Cantankerous-link trust
An explicit trust between domains in dissimilar trees or in the same tree when a descendant/ancestor (child/parent) relationship does not exist between the ii domains.
Shortcut
Joins two domains in different trees, transitive, one- or two-way.
Forest trust
Applies to the entire forest. Transitive, one- or two-way.
Realm
Tin be transitive or nontransitive (intransitive), one- or two-mode.
External
Connect to other forests or non-AD domains. Nontransitive, one- or two-mode.[52]
PAM trust
A ane-way trust used by Microsoft Identity Director from a (possibly depression-level) production forest to a (Windows Server 2016 functionality level) 'bastion' forest, which bug time-limited group memberships.[53] [54]

Management solutions [edit]

Microsoft Active Directory management tools include:

  • Active Directory Administrative Center (Introduced with Windows Server 2012 and higher up),
  • Active Directory Users and Computers,
  • Active Directory Domains and Trusts,
  • Active Directory Sites and Services,
  • ADSI Edit,
  • Local Users and Groups,
  • Agile Directory Schema snap-ins for Microsoft Management Console (MMC),
  • SysInternals ADExplorer

These management tools may not provide enough functionality for efficient workflow in big environments. Some 3rd-party solutions extend the administration and management capabilities. They provide essential features for a more convenient administration processes, such as automation, reports, integration with other services, etc.

Unix integration [edit]

Varying levels of interoperability with Agile Directory can be achieved on almost Unix-like operating systems (including Unix, Linux, Mac Bone X or Coffee and Unix-based programs) through standards-compliant LDAP clients, but these systems ordinarily do not interpret many attributes associated with Windows components, such as Group Policy and back up for 1-way trusts.

Tertiary parties offer Agile Directory integration for Unix-like platforms, including:

  • PowerBroker Identity Services, formerly Likewise (BeyondTrust, formerly Likewise Software) – Allows a non-Windows customer to join Active Directory[55]
  • ADmitMac (Thursby Software Systems)[55]
  • Samba (free software under GPLv3) – Can act equally a domain controller[56] [57]

The schema additions shipped with Windows Server 2003 R2 include attributes that map closely plenty to RFC 2307 to be generally usable. The reference implementation of RFC 2307, nss_ldap and pam_ldap provided by PADL.com, support these attributes directly. The default schema for group membership complies with RFC 2307bis (proposed).[58] Windows Server 2003 R2 includes a Microsoft Management Panel snap-in that creates and edits the attributes.

An culling option is to use some other directory service every bit non-Windows clients authenticate to this while Windows Clients cosign to Advertizing. Non-Windows clients include 389 Directory Server (formerly Fedora Directory Server, FDS), ViewDS Identity Solutions - ViewDS v7.2 XML Enabled Directory and Sun Microsystems Sun Coffee Organisation Directory Server. The latter two both being able to perform two-way synchronization with AD and thus provide a "deflected" integration.

Some other option is to employ OpenLDAP with its translucent overlay, which tin extend entries in any remote LDAP server with additional attributes stored in a local database. Clients pointed at the local database see entries containing both the remote and local attributes, while the remote database remains completely untouched.[ citation needed ]

Assistants (querying, modifying, and monitoring) of Active Directory tin can be achieved via many scripting languages, including PowerShell, VBScript, JScript/JavaScript, Perl, Python, and Ruby.[59] [lx] [61] [62] Gratis and not-complimentary Advertising administration tools tin assist to simplify and peradventure automate Advert direction tasks.

Since Oct 2017 Amazon AWS offers integration with Microsoft Active Directory.[63]

Meet also [edit]

  • AGDLP (implementing role based access controls using nested groups)
  • Apple tree Open Directory
  • Flexible single master operation
  • FreeIPA
  • List of LDAP software
  • Organization Security Services Daemon (SSSD)
  • Univention Corporate Server

References [edit]

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  60. ^ "Using Scripts to Search Active Directory". Microsoft. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  61. ^ "ITAdminTools Perl Scripts Repository". ITAdminTools.com. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  62. ^ "Win32::OLE". Perl Open-Source Community. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  63. ^ "Introducing AWS Directory Service for Microsoft Active Directory (Standard Edition)". Amazon Spider web Services. 24 October 2017.

External links [edit]

  • Microsoft Technet: White newspaper: Active Directory Architecture (Single technical certificate that gives an overview near Active Directory.)
  • Microsoft Technet: Detailed description of Active Directory on Windows Server 2003
  • Microsoft MSDN Library: [MS-ADTS]: Active Directory Technical Specification (part of the Microsoft Open Specification Promise)
  • Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM)
  • Microsoft MSDN: [Advertizing-LDS]: Agile Directory Lightweight Directory Services
  • Microsoft TechNet: [Advertising-LDS]: Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services
  • Microsoft MSDN: Agile Directory Schema
  • Microsoft TechNet: Understanding Schema
  • Microsoft TechNet Mag: Extending the Agile Directory Schema
  • Microsoft MSDN: Agile Directory Certificate Services
  • Microsoft TechNet: Agile Directory Certificate Services

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